Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology

Priority Heavy Metals’ Toxicities on Internal Organs: a Review

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

Sylvester Ogbonna Ogbodo 1
Chidimma Lilian Asadu 1
Emmanuel Ikechukwu Nwobodo 2

1 Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Nigeria

2 Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Nigeria

https://doi.org/10.22038/apjmt.2025.88257.1515
Abstract
Background: Heavy metals toxicities have been implicated in many biochemical, physiological, and hematological changes, some leading to the development of many organ pathologies. Miners, and even non-miners living in mining areas, are constantly exposed to these toxicities and therefore, possible sufferers of organ failures. Some mechanisms involved in the development of these changes are already elucidated, while some are not.  
Methods: This review brings together many findings on the effects of these heavy metals on both occupationally and environmentally exposed individuals, and attempts to suggest some modes of action of these metals in bringing about the adverse effects. Published articles on the effects of heavy metals and priority heavy metals were randomly sourced from the internet using search terms like “toxicity of priority heavy metals”, “effects of heavy metals on miners”, biochemical changes in liver, kidney, heart of heavy metal miners”, “hematological changes in occupationally and non-occupationally exposed lead miners”, “priority heavy metals in ethno-medicinal plants. Also, unpublished work and personal experiences were used but not referenced.
Results: The results showed wide adverse effects of heavy metals on internal organs, especially the kidney, liver, and heart, of both occupationally and environmentally exposed subjects.
Conclusion: Artisanal system of mining in developing and underdeveloped countries can be a major culprit in the development of these organ pathologies. Therefore, government regulation and legislation will be a saving grace to the miners and other occupants of mining areas.

Keywords

Heavy metals
Toxicities
Internal organs
Subjects
  1. He ZL, Yang XE, Stoffella PJ. Trace elements in agroecosystems and impacts on the environment. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2005; 19(2–3): 125-40.
  2. Tchounwou PB, Clement GY, Anita KP, Dwayne JS. Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. EXS. 2012; 101: 133-64.
  3. He B, Yun Z, Shi JB, Jiang GB. Research progress of heavy metal pollution in China: Sources, analytical methods, status, and toxicity. Chinese Sci Bull. 2013; 58: 134-40.
  4. Ezeh HN, Chukwu E. Small scale mining and heavy metals pollution of agricultural soils: The case of Ishiagu Mining District, South Eastern Nigeria. J Geol Min Res. 2011; 3: 87-104.
  5. Oti Wilberforce JO, Nwabue FI. Uptake of heavy metals by Dioscorea rotundata (White Yam) and Ipomoea batatas (Sweet Potato) from Enyigba Lead-Zinc Derelict. Environ Pollut. 2013; 2: 79-84.
  6. Okogbue CO, Ukpai SN. Evaluation of trace element contents in groundwater in Abakaliki metropolis and around the abandoned mine sites in the southern parts, Southeastern Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci. 2013; 70: 3351-62.
  7. Shu EN, Otuu FC, Maduka IC, Tilako BH, Nwadinigwe AO, Ogbodo SO, et al. Public health implications of continuous ethnomedical use of some plant species encounterd in enyigba lead-zinc mining community of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. IOSR J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol. 2019; 13(6): 2319-402.
  8. ATSDR (2023). Chromium Toxicity: What are the physiologic effects of chromium exposure? Retrieved on July 10, 2023, from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/chromium/physiologic_effects_of_chromium_exposure.
  9. Badkour LH. Toxic effects of environmental heavy metals on cardiovascular pathophysiology and heart health functions: Chelation therapeutics. UPI J Pharmaceut Med Health Sci. 2018; 1(1): 19-62.
  10. Malekirad AA, Oryan S, Fani A, Babapor V, Hashem M, Bayrami Z, et al. Study on clinical and biochemical toxicity biomarkers in zinc-lead mine workers. Toxicol Industr Health. 2010; 26:331-7.
  11. Abdel AE, Dkhil MA, Al-Quraishy S. Effects of flaxseed oil on lead acetate-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Biol Trace Elem Res.2011; 144: 904-13.
  12. Tilako BH, Ogbodo SO, Okonkwo IN, Shuneba IL, Enyinna O, Odoma S, et al. Nephrotoxicity effect in inhabitants of a lead-zinc mining community, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. J Biol Sci. 2020; 20: 80-87.
  13. Tilako BH, Ogbodo SO, Okonkwo IN, Nubila IN, Shuneba IL, Enyinna O, et al. Distribution and interactions of priority heavy metals with some antioxidant micronutrients in inhabitants of a lead-zinc mining community of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Adv Toxicol Toxic Effects. 2020; 4(1): 011-0017.
  14. Taylor MP, Winder C, Lanphear BP. Eliminating childhood lead toxicity in Australia: a call to lower the intervention level. Med J Australia. 2012; 197(9): 493.
  15. Tilako BH, Otuu FC, Bassey EB, Shu EN. Blood-lead levels among inhabitants of Enyigba lead-zinc mining community of Ebonyi State, Nigeria: Indications of occupational and environmental health hazards. Adv Clin Toxicol. 2019; 4: 000162.
  16. Ogbonna ND, Ugwu CE, Obi E, Suru SM, Oguaka VN, Ogueche PN, et al. Impact of heavy metal mining on hepato-renal indices in inhabitants of Enyigba, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. J Environ Pollut Human Health. 2019; 7(1): 34-38.
  17. Ogbodo SO, Tilako BH, Shundeba IL, Shu EN. Hepatotoxicity in both occupationally and environmentally-exposed inhabitants of a lead-zinc mining community. Asia Pac J Med Toxicol. 2022; 11(3):93-103.
  18. Coppo JA, Mussart NB, Fioranelli SA. Physiological variation of enzymatic activities in blood of bullfrog, Ranacatesbeiana (Shaw, 1802). Revsta Veterinaria. 2002; 13: 22-27.
  19. Dioka CE, Orisakwe OE, Adeniyi FA, Meludu SC. Liver and renal function tests in artisans occupationally exposed to lead in mechanic village in Nnewi, Nigeria. Intern J Environ Res Public Health. 2004; 1:21-25.
  20. Sipos P, Szentmihalyi K, Feher E, Abaza M, Szilagyi M, Blazovics A. Some effects of lead contamination on liver and gall bladder bile. Acta Biologica Szegediensis. 2013; 47(1-4): 139-42.
  21. Osuala FI, Otitioloju AA, Igwo-Ezikpe MN. Usefulness of liver and kidney function parameters as biomarkers of heavy metals exposure in mammalian model mus musculus. Afr J Biochem Res. 2014; 8(3): 65-73.
  22. Shalan MG, Mostafa MS, Hassouna MM, Hassab SE, El-Rafaie A. Amelioration of lead toxicity on rat liver with vitamin C and silymarin supplements. Toxicology. 2005; 206: 1-25.
  23. Khan D, Qayyum S, Saleem S, Khan F. Lead-induced oxidative stress adversely affects health of the occupational workers. Toxicol Industr Health. 2008; 24(9):611-18.
  24. Chukwu EO, Evelyn UO. Effect of occupational exposure to lead on liver function parameters. Intern J Pharmaceut Med Sci. 2016; 6 (1): 15-9.
  25. Seddik L, Bah TM, Aoues A, Brnderdour M, Silmani M. Dried leaf extract protects against lead induced neurotoxicity in Wistar rats. Eur J Sci Res. 2010; 42(1): 139-51.
  26. Wan H, Wang Y, Zhang H, Zhang K, Chen Y, Chen C, et al. Chronic lead exposure induces fatty liver disease associated with the variations of gut microbiota. Ecotoxicol Environ Safety. 2022; 232:113257.
  27. Guha Mazumder DN. Effect of chronic intake of arsenic-contaminated water on liver. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005; 206: 169-75.
  28. Das N, Paul S, Chatterjee D, Banerjee N, Majumder NS, Sarma N et al. Arsenic exposure through drinking water increases the risk of liver and cardiovascular diseases in the population of West Bengal, India. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:
  29. Arteel G. (2011). Priming of liver disease by arsenic exposure. Retrieved on July 10, 2023, from https://www.nal.usda.gov/research-tools/food-safety-research-projects/priming-liver-disease-arsenic-exposure
  30. Lee S, Cho SR, Jeong I, Park JB, Shin MY, Kim S, et al. Mercury exposure and associations with hyperlipidemia and elevated liver enzymes: A nationwide cross-sectional survey. Toxics. 2020; 8: 47.
  31. Yang Y, Yang E, Park K, Oh S, Kim T, Hong Y. Association between blood mercury levels and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in non-obese populations: The Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) 2012-2014. Intern J Environ Res Public Health. 2021; 18(12): 6412.
  32. Moradi F, Kooshki F, Nokhostin F, Khoshbaten M, Bazyar H, Gargari BP. A pilot study of the effects of chromium picolinate supplementation on serum fetuin-A, metabolic and inflammatory factors in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2021; 63: 126659.
  33. Dana C. (2021). The role of albumin and fluids in the body. Journal Archive: Veterinary Technician. Retrieved on September 9, 2021, from (https://www.vetfolio.com/learn/article
  34. Lei Y, Huang T, Su M, Luo J, Korteweg C, Li J, et al. Expression and distribution of immunoglobulin G in the normal liver, hepatocarcinoma and postpartial hepatectomy liver. Lab Invest. 2014; 94: 1283-95.
  35. Won-Joon C, Kyu-Tak J, Hye-Young P, Jong-Do J, Duk-Hee L. The relationship of liver function tests to mixed exposure to lead and organic solvents. Ann Occup Environ Med. 2013; 25 (5): 1-12.
  36. Vaziri ND, Lin CY, Farmand F, Sindhu RK. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and NADPH oxidase in lead-induced hypertension. Kidney Intern. 2003; 63(1):186-94.
  37. Farmand F, Ehdale A, Roberts CK, Sindhu RK. Lead-induced dysregulation of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and guanylate cyclase. Environ Res. 2005; 98: 33-9.
  38. Ogbodo SO, Oti ME, Okeke AC, Okafor CS. Pneumoconiosis among quarry workers in a metropolitan town in Southeastern Nigeria. Intern J Environ Sci. 2013; 3(5): 1437-45.
  39. National Kidney Foundation (NKF). (2023). How your kidneys work. Retrieved on July 3, 2023, from https://www.kidney.org/kidneydisease/howkidneyswrk.
  40. Rastogi SK. Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure. Indian J Occup Environ Med. 2008; 12: 103-6.
  41. Pollock CA, Ibels LS. Lead intoxication in paint removal workers on the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Med J Australia. 1988; 145: 635-9.
  42. Loghman-Adham M. Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 1997; 105: 928-39.
  43. Sabath E, Robles-Osorio ML. Renal health and the environment: Heavy metal nephrotoxicity. Nefrologia. 2012; 32: 279-86.
  44. Tsai TL, Kuo CC, Pan WH, Chung YT, Chen CY, Wu TN, et al. The decline in kidney function with chromium exposure is exacerbated with co-exposure to lead and cadmium. Kidney Intern. 2017; 92: 710-20.
  45. Tong S, Von-schirnding Y, Prapamontol T. Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions. Bull WHO.2000; 78: 1068-77.
  46. Orisakwe OE, Nwachukwu E, Osadolor HB, Afonne OJ, Okocha CE. Liver and kidney function tests amongst paint factory workers in Nkpor, Nigeria. Toxicol Industr Health. 2007; 23:161-65.
  47. Papanikolaou N, Hatzidaki E, Belivanis C, Tzanakakis GN, Tsafsakis AM. Lead toxicity update: A brief review. Med Sci Monitor. 2005; 11(10): RA329-36.
  48. Meyer PA, Brown MJ, Falk H. Global approach to reducing lead exposure and poisoning. Mutation Res/Reverse Mutation Res. 2008; 659: 166-75.
  49. Gidlow DA. Lead toxicity. Occup Med. 2015; 65: 348-56.
  50. Landriga PJ. Lead and the heart: an ancient metal’s contribution to modern disease. The Lancet: Public Health. 2018; 3(4): E156-E157.
  51. Corliss J. Lead exposure and heart disease. Harvard Health Blog, 2019. Retrieved on August 29, 2023, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/lead-exposure-and-heart-disease-2019040516296
  52. Weaver VM, Fadrowski JJ, Jaar BG. Global dimensions of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): a modern era environmental and/or occupational nephropathy?BMC Nephrology. 2015;16: 145.
  53. Jacquillet G, Barbier O, Rubera I, Tauc M, Borderie A, Namorado MC. et al. Cadmium causes delayed effects on renal function in the offspring of cadmium-contaminated pregnant female rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2007; 293: F1450-F1460.
  54. Huang M, Choi S, Kim D, Kim N, Park C, Yu S. et al. Risk assessment of low-level cadmium and arsenic on the kidney. J Toxicol Environ Health, Part A. 2009; 72: 1493-8.
  55. Orr SE, Bridges CC. Chronic kidney disease and exposure to nephrotoxic metals. Intern J Mol Sci. 2005; 18(5). 10.3390/ijms18051039.
  56. Garcon G, Leleu B, Marez T, Zerimech F, Haguenoer JM, Furon D, et al. Biomonitoring of the adverse effects induced by the chronic exposure to lead and cadmium on kidney function: Usefulness of alpha-glutathione S-transferase. Sci Total Environ. 2007; 377: 165-72
  57. Dewanjee S, Sahu R, Karmakar S, Gangopadhyay M. Toxic effects of lead exposure in Wistar rats: Involvement of oxidative stress and the beneficial role of edible jute (Corchorus olitorius) leaves. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013; 55: 78-91.
  58. Zhang Z, Gao X, Guo M, Jiang H, Cao Y, Zhang N. The protective effect of baicalin against lead-induced renal oxidative damage in mice. Biol Trace Element Res. 2017; 175: 129-35.
  59. Zhang J, Cao H, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Ma J, Wang J, et al. Nephroprotective effect of calcium channel blockers against toxicity of lead exposure in mice. Toxicol Letter. 2013; 218: 273-80.
  60. Wang H, Wang ZK, Jiao P, Zhou XP, Yang DB, Wang ZY, et al. Redistribution of subcellular calcium and its effect on apoptosis in primary cultures of rat proximal tubular cells exposed to lead. Toxicology. 2015; 333: 137-46.
  61. Fuller R, Rahona E, Fisher S, Caravanos J, Webb D, Kass D, et al. Pollution and non-communicable disease: time to end the neglect. Lancet Planet Health. 2018;2: e96-e98
  62. Cardiovascular disease. National Health Service, 17 September, 2021. Retrieved October 4, 2021, from https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/
  63. Houston MC. The role of mercury and cadmium heavy metals in vascular disease, hypertension, coronary heart disease, and myocardial infarction. Alternative Therapy and Health in Medicine. 2007; 13(2): S128-133.
  64. Wolf MB, Baynes JW. Cadmium and mercury cause an oxidative stress-induced endothelial dysfunction. Biometals. 2007; 20(1): 73-81.
  65. Du X, Schwander M, Moresco EMY, Viviani P, Haller C, Hildebrand MS, et al. A catechol-O-methyltransferase that is essential for auditory function in mice and humans. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 2008; 105(38): 14609-14.
  66. Houston MC. Role of mercury toxicity in hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. J Clin Hypert (Greenwich). 2011; 13(8): 621-7.
  67. Pirkle JL, Schwartz J, Landis R, Harlan WR. The relationship between blood lead levels and blood pressure and its cardiovascular risk implication. Am J Epidemiol. 1985; 121: 246-58.
  68. Lai CC, Lin HH, Chen CW, Chen SH, Chiu TH. Excitatory action of lead on rat sympathetic preganglionic neurons in vitroand in vivo. Life Sciences. 2002; 71:1035–45.
  69. Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. 2016;388: 1659-724.
  70. Vaziri ND. Mechanisms of lead‐induced hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Am J Physiol Heart Circul Physiol. 2008; H454–H465.
  71. American Heart Association (AHA). Lead, mercury exposure raises cholesterol level. ScienceDaily, 5 November 2018. Retrieved October 4, 2021, from sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181105081733.htm.
  72. Buhari O, Dayyab FM, Igbinoba O, Atanda A, Medhane F, Faillace RT. The association between heavy metal and serum cholesterol levels in the US population: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2012. Human Experiment Toxicol. 2020; 39(3): 355-64.
  73. Nguyen HD, Oh H, Hoang NHM,.Kim M. Association between heavy metals, high-sensitivity C-reaction protein and 10-year risk of cardiovascular diseases among adult Korean population. Science Report. 2021;11: 
  74. Zhu X, Fan Y, Sheng J, Gu L, Tao Q, Huang R, et al. Association between blood heavy metal concentrations and dyslipidemia in the elderly. Biol Trace Elements Res. 2021; 199(4): 1280-90.
  75. Newairy AA, Abdou HM. Protective role of flax lignans against lead induced oxidative damage and hyperlipidemia in rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009; 47(4): 813-18.
  76. Turczyn B, Skoczynska A, Wojakowska A. Serum and urinary glycosaminoglycans in workers chronically exposed to lead. Med Promotions. 2010; 61(5):553-60.
  77. Jadoon S, Malik A. DNA damage by heavy metals in animals and human beings: An overview. Biochem Pharmacol. 2017; 6: 1000235.
  78. Lee TH, Tseng MC, Chen CJ, Lin JL. Association of high body lead store with severe intracranial carotid atherosclerosis. Neurotoxicology. 2009; 30(6): 876-80.
  79. Hanan AK, Suhair A, Sadoon A, Ali Y. Comparative study between exposed and non-exposed individuals to lead in relation to lipid profile. Tikrit Med J. 2010; 16(1): 129-37.
  80. Hengstler JG, Bolm-Audorf U, Faldum A, Janssen K, Reifenrath M, Gotte W, et al. Occupational exposure to heavy metals: DNA damage induction and DNA repair inhibition prove co-exposures to cadmium, cobolt and lead as more dangerous than hitherto expected. Carcinogenesis. 2003; 24(1): 63-73.
  81. Morales ME, Derbes RS, Ade CM, Ortego JC, Stark J, Deininger PL, et al. Heavy metal exposure influences double strand break DNA repair outcomes. Plos One. 2016; 11(3): e0151367.
  82. Shukla PC, Singh KK, Yanagawa B, Teoh H, Verma S. DNA damage repair and cardiovascular diseases. Canadian J Cardiol. 2010; 26(SupplA): 13A-16A.
  83. Wu CG. Improving cardiovascular health through DNA repair. Circulation Res. 2019; 125(Suppl1): A591.
  84. Kelly M, Semsarian C. Multiple mutations in genetic cardiovascular disease: A marker of disease severity? Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2009; 2: 182-90.
  85. Kolber MR. Family history of cardiovascular disease. Can Fam Physician. 2014; 60(11): 1016.
Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology
Volume 14, Issue 4
Autumn 2025
Pages 155-163

Home

Guide for Authors

Submit Manuscript

Reviewers

Contact Us