Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

By Subject

Author Index

Keyword Index

About Journal

Aims and Scope

Editorial Board

Publication Ethics

Indexing and Abstracting

Related Links

FAQ

Peer Review Process

Journal Metrics

News

Chronic Exposure to Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics Induces Endocrine and Inflammatory Dysregulation in Female Albino Rats: Implications for Reproductive and Public Health

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

2 Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract

Background: The widespread use of plastics has led to an increased environmental presence of microplastics, with potential adverse effects. This study was conducted to assess the effects of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) microplastics on reproductive hormones and Interleukin-1β in chronically-exposed female albino rats.
Methods: Forty female albino rats were selected for the study. Polyethylene terephthalate pellets were obtained, crushed, dissolved in water, and passed through a 5µm sieve to obtain particles with a size of ≤ 5µm which were used for the study.  Twelve rats were used for a pilot study, while the remaining twenty-eight rats were randomly assigned into four experimental groups (n = 7). The PET treatment was administered orally using gavage tubes for 90-days. 40mg/kg, 80mg/kg, and 120mg/kg PET-microplastics were given to rats in groups 2, 3, and 4, respectively, while group 1 received only food and water (negative control). After the duration of treatments, blood samples were collected for analysis of estradiol, progesterone, prolactin, and IL-1β levels using ELISA methods. Statistical analysis was computed using GraphPad Prism Software. Differences were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05. 
Results: The mean levels of estradiol, progesterone, and IL-1β in the PET-treated rats were significantly higher than the levels in the control group (p < 0.0001). However, the mean levels of prolactin in PET-treated groups were not significantly different from those in the control rats (p = 0.2157).
Conclusion: These findings suggest that chronic PET-microplastic exposure may induce inflammatory responses and endocrine disruption in the animal model, as evidenced by alterations in hormone levels and IL-1β concentration, highlighting potential health risks that may be associated with prolonged PET microplastic exposure.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References
  1. Li Y, Tao L, Wang Q, Wang F, Li G, Song M. Potential health impact of microplastics: a review of environmental distribution, human exposure, and toxic effects. Environment & Health. 2023 Aug 10;1(4):249-57. https://doi.org/10.1021/envhealth.3c00052
  2. Priya AK, Jalil AA, Dutta K, Rajendran S, Vasseghian Y, Qin J, et al. Microplastics in the environment: Recent developments in characteristic, occurrence, identification and ecological risk. Chemosphere. 2022 Jul 1;298:134161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134161
  3. Schymanski D, Goldbeck C, Humpf HU, Fürst P. Analysis of microplastics in water by micro-Raman spectroscopy: Release of plastic particles from different packaging into mineral water. Water research. 2018 Feb 1;129:154-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.011
  4. Deng Y, Zhang Y, Lemos B, Ren H. Tissue accumulation of microplastics in mice and biomarker responses suggest widespread health risks of exposure. Scientific reports. 2017 Apr 24;7(1):46687. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46687
  5. Dhaka V, Singh S, Anil AG, Sunil Kumar Naik TS, Garg S, Samuel J, et al. Occurrence, toxicity and remediation of polyethylene terephthalate plastics. A review. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2022 Jun;20(3):1777-800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01384-8
  6. Campanale C, Massarelli C, Savino I, Locaputo V, Uricchio VF. A detailed review study on potential effects of microplastics and additives of concern on human health. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2020 Feb;17(4):1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041212
  7. Du F, Cai H, Zhang Q, Chen Q, Shi H. Microplastics in take-out food containers. Journal of hazardous materials. 2020 Nov 15;399:122969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122969
  8. Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Phthalates strategy. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish EPA; 2013 [cited 2025 Jan]. Available from: https://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2013/06/978-87-93026-22-3.pdf
  9. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). 2006 [cited 2025 Jan]. Available from: https://osha.europa.eu/it/legislation/directives/regulation-ec-no-1907-2006-of-the-european-parliament-and-of-the-council
  10. Park EJ, Han JS, Park EJ, Seong E, Lee GH, Kim DW, et al. Repeated-oral dose toxicity of polyethylene microplastics and the possible implications on reproduction and development of the next generation. Toxicology letters. 2020 May 15;324:75-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.01.008
  11. Hu J, Qin X, Zhang J, Zhu Y, Zeng W, Lin Y, et al. Polystyrene microplastics disturb maternal-fetal immune balance and cause reproductive toxicity in pregnant mice. Reproductive Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;106:42-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.10.002
  12. Valdivia S, Riquelme C, Carrasco MC, Weisser P, Añazco C, Alarcón A, et al. Polyethylene microplastics and human cells: a critical review. Toxics. 2025;13(9):756. https://doi:10.3390/toxics13090756
  13. Hong Y, Gan SKE, Shim BS. Microplastics in human body: accumulation, natural clearance, and biomedical detoxification strategies. Biomed Eng Lett. 2025;15:1013–1032. doi:10.1007/s13534-025-00511-6.
  14. Ririe AK, Fatema N, Dina TJ, Devi Kuchipudi J, Tamanna P, Libriansyah L, et al. Impact of microplastic exposure on human health: a systematic review of mechanisms, biomarkers, and clinical outcomes. Cureus. 2025;17(12):e100295. doi:10.7759/cureus.100295.
  15. Balali H, Morabbi A, Karimian M. Concerning influences of micro/nano plastics on female reproductive health: focusing on cellular and molecular pathways from animal models to human studies. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2024;22:141. doi:10.1186/s12958-024-01314-7
  16. Hilton HN, Clarke CL, Graham JD. Estrogen and progesterone signalling in the normal breast and its implications for cancer development. Molecular and cellular endocrinology. 2018 May 5;466:2-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.011
  17. Kim YJ. Pivotal roles of prolactin and other hormones in lactogenesis and the nutritional composition of human milk. Clinical and experimental pediatrics. 2020 Aug 15;63(8):312. https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2020.00311
  18. Rahman A, Sarkar A, Yadav OP, Achari G, Slobodnik J. Potential human health risks due to environmental exposure to nano-and microplastics and knowledge gaps: A scoping review. Science of the Total Environment. 2021 Feb 25;757:143872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143872
  19. National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: Eighth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2011 [cited 2025 Apr 8]. Available from: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12910/guide-for-the-care-and-use-of-laboratory-animals-eighth
  20. Percie du Sert N, Hurst V, Ahluwalia A, Alam S, Avey MT, Baker M, et al. The ARRIVE guidelines 2.0: Updated guidelines for reporting animal research. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism. 2020 Sep;40(9):1769-77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X20943823
  21. Lorke D. A new approach to practical acute toxicity testing. Archives of toxicology. 1983 Dec;54(4):275-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01234480
  22. Calbiotech Inc. Estradiol ELISA [Internet]. USA: Calbiotech Inc.; 2025 [cited 2025 Apr 8]. Available from: https://calbiotech.com/products/estradiol-elisa
  23. Calbiotech Inc. Progesterone ELISA [Internet]. USA: Calbiotech Inc.; 2025 [cited 2025 Apr 8]. Available from: https://calbiotech.com/products/progesterone-elisa
  24. Calbiotech Inc. Prolactin ELISA [Internet]. USA: Calbiotech Inc.; 2025 [cited 2025 Apr 8]. Available from: https://calbiotech.com/products/prolactin-elisa
  25. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Evaluation of precision of quantitative measurement procedures; approved guideline (EP05). Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2014.
  26. Elabscience Bioinovation Inc. Rat IL-1β (Interleukin 1β) ELISA Kit (E-EL-R0012) [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2025 Apr 8]. Available from: https://www.elabscience.com/p/rat-il-1-interleukin-1-beta-elisa-kit--e-el-r0012
  27. Hamilton KJ, Hewitt SC, Arao Y, Korach KS. Estrogen hormone biology. Current topics in developmental biology. 2017 Jan 1;125:109-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.011
  28. Gore AC, Chappell VA, Fenton SE, Flaws JA, Nadal A, Prins GS, et al. Executive summary to EDC-2: the Endocrine Society's second scientific statement on endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Endocrine reviews. 2015 Dec 1;36(6):593-602. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2015-1093
  29. Ferreira MSV, Mousavi SH. Nanofiber technology in the ex vivo expansion of cord blood-derived hematopoietic stem cells. Nanomedicine (Lond). 2018;14(5):1707–18. doi:10.1016/j.nano.2018.04.017.
  30. Inam Ö. Impact of microplastics on female reproductive health: insights from animal and human experimental studies: a systematic review. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2025;312:77–92. doi:10.1007/s00404-024-07929-w.
  31. Kolatorova L, Vitku J, Suchopar J, Hill M, Parizek A. Progesterone: a steroid with wide range of effects in physiology as well as human medicine. International journal of molecular sciences. 2022 Jul 20;23(14):7989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23147989
  32. Vannuccini S, Clifton VL, Fraser IS, Taylor HS, Critchley H, Giudice LC, et al. Infertility and reproductive disorders: impact of hormonal and inflammatory mechanisms on pregnancy outcome. Human reproduction update. 2016 Jan 1;22(1):104-15. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmv044
  33. Chaichian S, Khodabandehloo F, Haghighi L, Govahi A, Mehdizadeh M, Ajdary M, et al. Toxicological impact of bisphenol A on females’ reproductive system: review based on experimental and epidemiological studies. Reproductive Sciences. 2024 Jul;31(7):1781-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-024-01521-y
  34. Zhang X, Ma T, Sun J, Fang Y, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) microplastics induced male reproductive toxicity in mice by activating the p38-MAPK pathway. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025;302:118756. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118756.
  35. Li T, Bian B, Ji R, Zhu X, Wo X, Song Q, et al. Polyethylene terephthalate microplastic exposure induced reproductive toxicity through oxidative stress and p38 signaling pathway activation in male mice. Toxics. 2024;12(11):779. https://doi:10.3390/toxics12110779
  36. Alahmadi H, Nadeem M, Pujols AM, Reynolds R, Islam MS, Gupta I, et al. Polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate nanoplastics differentially impact mouse ovarian follicle function. Environ Pollut. 2025;386:127228. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2025.127228.
  37. Bole-Feysot C, Goffin V, Edery M, Binart N, Kelly PA. Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocrine reviews. 1998 Jun 1;19(3):225-68. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.19.3.0334
  38. Seachrist DD, Bonk KW, Ho SM, Prins GS, Soto AM, Keri RA. A review of the carcinogenic potential of bisphenol A. Reproductive Toxicology. 2016 Jan 1;59:167-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.09.006
  39. Gasperi J, Wright SL, Dris R, Collard F, Mandin C, Guerrouache M, et al. Microplastics in air: are we breathing it in?. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health. 2018 Feb 1;1:1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.10.002
  40. Silva JR, Lima FE, Souza AL, Silva AW. Interleukin-1β and TNF-α systems in ovarian follicles and their roles during follicular development, oocyte maturation and ovulation. Zygote. 2020 Aug;28(4):270-7. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0967199420000222
  41. Fattahi A, Zarezadeh R, Rezaei YR, Mettler L, Nouri M, Schmutzler AG, et al. Expression of interleukin-1β and its receptor in human granulosa cells and their association with steroidogenesis. Tissue and Cell. 2023 Dec 1;85:102230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tice.2023.102230
  42. Abbas G, Ahmed U, Ahmad MA. Impact of Microplastics on Human Health: Risks, Diseases, and Affected Body Systems. Microplastics. 2025 May 7;4(2):23. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4020023
  43. Kaipia AN, Chun SY, Eisenhauer KA, Hsueh AJ. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and its second messenger, ceramide, stimulate apoptosis in cultured ovarian follicles. Endocrinology. 1996 Nov 1;137(11):4864-70. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.137.11.8895358
  44. Harșa R, Pintea I, Micu R, Surcel M, Stamatian F. Evaluation of IL-1β and TNF-α level in endometrial flush in patients with recurrent implantation failure. J. Clin. Images Med. Case Rep. 2022;3:1718.
  45. Ishihara Y, Kajino M, Iwamoto Y, Nakane T, Nabetani Y, Okuda T, et al. Impact of artificial sunlight aging on the respiratory effects of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics through degradation-mediated terephthalic acid release in male mice. Toxicol Sci. 2025;203(2):242–52. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfae135.
  46. Bishop B, Webber WS, Atif SM, Ley A, Pankratz KA, Kostelecky R, et al. Micro- and nano-plastics induce inflammation and cell death in human cells. Front Immunol. 2025;16:1528502. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1528502.
Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology
Volume 15, Issue 1
March 2026
Pages 21-27
Files
Share
How to cite
Statistics